(Available: https://www.nytimes.com. Adapted.)

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Classroom interaction is studied from a social interaction perspective to unearth the mechanisms teachers and students use to conduct their classroom business. Classroom interaction research originated, like all social interaction research, when in the 1960s recording technology such as cameras and microphones became accessible for researchers. Recording techniques have ranged from one hand-held camera to several cameras on poles, and from researchers sitting or even participating in the classroom, to those who witnessed the lesson on a monitor in an adjacent room, or only saw the recordings afterwards. Audio has been recorded following the available technology and research aims with cameramounted or separate microphones, or wireless individual microphones on the teacher or on individual students. Recent digital technology has allowed these different streams to be fed directly into a computer where they can be synchronised with each other and with subsequent transcripts. Sometimes, classroom recordings have been supplemented by interviews of different kinds, and ethnographic information on factors such as ethnicity or social class. Also, additional information has been assembled on school policy or teacher planning, and additional recordings have been in the school yard, all depending on research aims and researchers’ views on methodology and epistemology.

(Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, Richards and Rodgers.)

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It is important that assessment processes and procedures in ITE (Inclusive Teaching Education) are coherent, using a variety of assessment modes, for formative as well as summative purposes (Teaching Council, 2011a). The European Commission (2014) notes that prospective teachers are often assessed using portfolios, which might prepare them to use this type of assessment in their teaching. Literature Review 25 The Agency’s TE4I report noted the need for assessment in ITE to change in line with more active teaching methods. It stressed that across both academic assignments and school practice there is a need for: ‘assessment for learning’ approaches that encourage student/teachers to reflect on their own work and performance and […] formulate their own targets for improvement (European Agency, 2011a, p. 23). It also noted the importance of guided reflection and teacher educators developing knowledge of students’ understanding to provide appropriate challenges together with good models of inclusive assessment practice. Echeita (2014) mentions that at a national or regional level, it is also necessary to set out clear standards for graduating student/teachers, allowing them to monitor whether they have correctly learned the competences related to inclusive education.

(Nicholls and Nicholls, 1972.)