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Motivation
Motivation is the force that inspires us to do something: pass an examination, get a better job, or climb the highest mountain in the world. Psychology offers us many theoretical approaches for explaining what motivates us. At the most basic level is the “drive-reduction approach”. We usually try to reduce these needs by finding ways to fulfill them. If you're hungry before dinnertime, you might eat a snack to relieve that feeling of hunger. However, this approach does not sufficiently explain the motivation behind more complex behaviors.
“Cognitive approaches” propose that we do things because of the way we think about the world, the goals we wish to achieve, and our expectations. There are two separate types of behavior related to the cognitive approaches: intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. The former motivation means that we do something just because we like doing it, not because we think it will lead to some kind of future reward, praise, or honor. For example, an intrinsically motivated student might read extra materials not to get better grades, but just because the topic is interesting. This can be seen in the case of an extrinsically motivated employee who agrees to relocate for higher wages even though it means living in a new city that he doesn't particularly like.
Interestingly, psychological studies suggest that we are more likely to push ourselves harder and do our best work when we do it for our own enjoyment or simply because it is interesting or personally challenging to us. That is, when we are intrinsically motivated. However, it is believed that if we become more extrinsically motivated by external rewards, we may find that our intrinsic motivation is significantly lowered. This is especially true when a person thinks that the extrinsic motivators - better job conditions or more vacation time – are controlled by other people. For instance, when an employee discovers that to get an important promotion, his boss insists that he work very long hours, he may begin to lose motivation.
(GILBERT, T. L. & ZEMACK, D. E. Express to the TOEFL iBT test. New York: Pearson, 2013.)
Judge the following discourse markers according to their use.
