Grammar teachers have long been aware of recurring interference factors with pronouns and reference, such as the Japanese tendency to confuse he and she, the Spanish tendency to confuse his and your, and so on, and there is not much discourse analysts can say to ease those overgreen problems. What can be (and often is not) directly taught about a system such as that of English is the different ways of referring to the discourse itself by use of items such as it, this, and that, which do not seem to translate in a one-to-one way to other languages, even where these are closely cognate (cf. German, French, Spanish).