Observing classroom phenomena, Larsen-Freeman (2000) establishes some principles underlying different language teaching and learning approaches for students to learn to communicate in the target language. The Communicative Approach to Language Teaching contributed to a shift in the field of second language acquisition studies in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s, as well as other approaches, like the Content-based, the Task-based, and the Participatory Approaches. Read the principles below, and decide the order in which each of the highlighted approaches is being characterized in the alternatives that follow.

I. Learning is based on language functions; whenever possible, authentic language should be introduced; the target language is a vehicle for classroom communication, not the object of study; games are important because they have features in common with real communication – there’s a purpose to the exchange; students have opportunities to express their own ideas and opinions; learning about linguistic form is important for language competence.

II. What happens in the classroom should be connected with what happens in students’ lives; content is not pre-determined; education is related to students’ real needs and students are motivated by their personal involvement; focus on linguistic form occurs within a focus on content; students can create their own material, which in turn become material to other students.

III. The subject matter is used for language teaching purposes; teaching should build on students’ previous experience; the target language use is a means to an end, rather than an end in itself; language support is provided by the teacher, by means of examples, redundancies, and comprehension checks; students work with meaningful and authentical materials and tasks.

IV. Class activities have a perceived purpose and a clear outcome; a previous activity is a helpful way to have the students see the logic involved in what they are being asked to do; the teacher breaks down into smaller steps the logical thinking process necessary to complete what students have to do; the demand on thinking should be just above students’ level of independent work; the teacher does not consciously simplify the language; the teacher supplies the correct target form by reformulating or recasting what the students have said.