O preço X de um produto é considerado uma variável aleatória com função densidade de probabilidade dada por:

f(x) = !$ \begin{cases} kx^3 se 1 \ge x \ge 3; \\ 0 \, para \, qualquer \, outro \, valor \, de \, x \end{cases} !$

onde k é uma constante positiva. Pode-se afirmar que:

Item 0: O preço médio deste produto é aproximadamente 2,42.

Considerando os diferentes índices existentes, pode-se afirmar que:

Item 3: Ao multiplicar um índice de preços de Fisher por um índice de quantidade de Marshall-Edgeworth obtém-se um índice simples de valor de vendas.

Para um modelo de monopólio com discriminação de preços em dois mercados diferentes,

Item 0: presume-se que os compradores dos bens num dos mercados possam revendê-los no outro mercado.

THE EFFECTS OF DOMESTIC ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES ON PATTERNS OF WORLD TRADE: AN EMPIRICAL TEST

James A. Tobey

In theory, environmental control costs encourage reduced specialization in the production of polluting outputs in countries with stringent environmental regulations (Pethig, 1976; Siebert, 1977; McGuire, 1982). In contrast, countries that fail to undertake an environmental protection program presumably increase their comparative advantage in the production of items that damage the invironment. This relationship between trade and environmental policy receives considerable attention whenever countries are in the process of passing new pollution control measures. Groups who oppose existing measures, of the implementation of stiffer measures, argue that they reduce the ability of polluting industries to compete internationally. With foreign trade an increasingly important sector in many of the world’s economies, the arguments of such groups are now frequently weighted very heavily.

The premise that trade suffers from the imposition of environmental policy has a strong element of a priori plausibility but, surprisingly, has little empirical support. Several macroeconometric models (D’Arge, 1974; Robison, 1986; OECD, 1985) have predicted that pollution control measures should lead to a small but discernible effect on the balance of trade, but there are few studies to confirm this prediction.

The location-of-industry studies (Leonard, 1988; Pearson, 1987, 1985; Walter, 1985) have explored the related ideas that stringent pollution control measures push industries out of the U.S. (the ‘industrial-flight’ hypothesis), and that less-developed countries compete to attract multinational industries by minimizing their own environmental policies (the ‘pollution-haven’ hypothesis). Their investigations, however, have been unable to find evidence in support of either hypothesis.

The present paper complement the results of the less rigorous location of industy studies by providing an empirical test of the hypothesis that stringent environmental policy has caused trade patterns to deviate in commodities produced by the world’s ‘dirty’ industries.

Extraído de: TOBEY, James A. The effects of domestic environmental policies on patterns of world trade: an empirical test. Kiklos; international review for social science, Basel, v.43, n.2, p.191-209.

In the fifth pargraph, the author concludes that:

Item 0: most industries polluting the environment in developed countries in the 1960s and 1970s had their trade patterns affected by environmental regulations.

Considere uma economia Kaleckiana, com dois setores. No primeiro, todas as empresas agem de acordo com as regras de concorrência perfeita (é o setor “competitivo). O segundo setor, “oligopolizado”, é formado por empresas monopolistas, oligopolistas, e de concorrência monopolística. No setor “competitivo” os custos marginais (compostos apenas pelos custos salariais) são crescentes como nível de produção. A demanda pelos produtos dos setor depende de seus preços relativos, e do nível de renda global. No setor “oligopolizado”, os preços são dados por um mark-up sobre os custos salariais:

P = (1 + m) w/a

onde:
p = preço
m = mark-up
w = salário nominal
a = produtividade do trabalho (suposta constante)

O mark-up é fixado de forma a cobrir outros custos da empresa, e gerar liquidamente a taxa de lucro desejada sobre o capital. Por sua vez, a taxa de lucro desejada depende positivamente da taxa real de juros de longo prazo. O mark-up inicial é inferior ao mark-up neoclássico, ou seja, o lucro de curto prazo é inferior ao máximo.

Suponha que o investimento é composto por dois itens: o investimento no setor “competitivo”, que varia inversamente com a taxa real de juros, e o investimento no setor “oligopolizado”, que varia positivamente com a taxa de utilização da capacidade instalada.

Os trabalhadores consomem integralmente sua renda, mas a propensão a consumir dos capitalistas é menor do que a unidade.

Suponha um aumento na taxa real de juros. Assinale “Falsa” ou “Verdadeira” para cada uma das afirmações abaixo:

Item 0: O nível global de renda cai.

Ainda em relação à questão anterior pode-se concluir que, exceto por erro de arredondamento:

Item 4: A estatística F de adequação do modelo é 729.

(Assinale “Falsa” ou “Verdadeira”)

De acordo com a “Teoria Geral”, de J.M.Keynes, para um dado nível de salário nominal, quando ha “desemprego involuntário”:

Item 3: Os preços nominais não variam, quando o nível de renda muda.

THE EFFECTS OF DOMESTIC ENVIRONMENTAL POLICIES ON PATTERNS OF WORLD TRADE: AN EMPIRICAL TEST

James A. Tobey

In theory, environmental control costs encourage reduced specialization in the production of polluting outputs in countries with stringent environmental regulations (Pethig, 1976; Siebert, 1977; McGuire, 1982). In contrast, countries that fail to undertake an environmental protection program presumably increase their comparative advantage in the production of items that damage the invironment. This relationship between trade and environmental policy receives considerable attention whenever countries are in the process of passing new pollution control measures. Groups who oppose existing measures, of the implementation of stiffer measures, argue that they reduce the ability of polluting industries to compete internationally. With foreign trade an increasingly important sector in many of the world’s economies, the arguments of such groups are now frequently weighted very heavily.

The premise that trade suffers from the imposition of environmental policy has a strong element of a priori plausibility but, surprisingly, has little empirical support. Several macroeconometric models (D’Arge, 1974; Robison, 1986; OECD, 1985) have predicted that pollution control measures should lead to a small but discernible effect on the balance of trade, but there are few studies to confirm this prediction.

The location-of-industry studies (Leonard, 1988; Pearson, 1987, 1985; Walter, 1985) have explored the related ideas that stringent pollution control measures push industries out of the U.S. (the ‘industrial-flight’ hypothesis), and that less-developed countries compete to attract multinational industries by minimizing their own environmental policies (the ‘pollution-haven’ hypothesis). Their investigations, however, have been unable to find evidence in support of either hypothesis.

The present paper complement the results of the less rigorous location of industy studies by providing an empirical test of the hypothesis that stringent environmental policy has caused trade patterns to deviate in commodities produced by the world’s ‘dirty’ industries.

Extraído de: TOBEY, James A. The effects of domestic environmental policies on patterns of world trade: an empirical test. Kiklos; international review for social science, Basel, v.43, n.2, p.191-209.

As can be understood in the third paragraph:

Item 2: “stringent pollution controls” means “strict controls of pollution”.

A demanda mensal de produtos de uma empresa é normalmente distribuída com média de 10 unidades e variância de 64. Se as demandas dos meses se comportam independentemente pode-se afirmar que:

Item 2: A probabilidade de a demanda no 1º semestre ficar entre 80 e 100 unidades é menor do que 10%.

Classifique, como V ou F, a afirmativa abaixo:

Item 4: No longo prazo os reajustes salariais se ajustarão às expectativas de inflação e a taxa de desemprego volta à taxa natural.