A relação entre verdade e justiça

Gostaria de me deter um instante na relação verdade-justiça, porque, claro, é um dos temas fundamentais da filosofia ocidental. Afinal de contas, um dos pressupostos mais imediatos e mais radicais de todo discurso judiciário, político, crítico é o de que existe pertinência essencial entre o enunciado da verdade e a prática da justiça. Ora, acontece que, no ponto em que vêm encontrar-se a instituição destinada a administrar a justiça, de um lado, e as instituições qualificadas para enunciar a verdade, de outro, sendo mais breve, no ponto em que se encontram o tribunal e o cientista, onde se cruzam a instituição judiciária e o saber médico ou científico em geral, nesse ponto são formulados os enunciados que possuem o estatuto de discursos verdadeiros, que detêm efeitos judiciários consideráveis e que têm, no entanto, a curiosa propriedade de serem alheios a todas as regras, mesmo as mais elementares, de formação dos discursos científicos, de serem alheios também às regras do direito e de serem, no sentido estrito, grotescos.

Michel Foucault. Os anormais. São Paulo: Martins Fontes, 2002, p. 14-15.

A relação entre verdade e justiça

Gostaria de me deter um instante na relação verdade-justiça, porque, claro, é um dos temas fundamentais da filosofia ocidental. Afinal de contas, um dos pressupostos mais imediatos e mais radicais de todo discurso judiciário, político, crítico é o de que existe pertinência essencial entre o enunciado da verdade e a prática da justiça. Ora, acontece que, no ponto em que vêm encontrar-se a instituição destinada a administrar a justiça, de um lado, e as instituições qualificadas para enunciar a verdade, de outro, sendo mais breve, no ponto em que se encontram o tribunal e o cientista, onde se cruzam a instituição judiciária e o saber médico ou científico em geral, nesse ponto são formulados os enunciados que possuem o estatuto de discursos verdadeiros, que detêm efeitos judiciários consideráveis e que têm, no entanto, a curiosa propriedade de serem alheios a todas as regras, mesmo as mais elementares, de formação dos discursos científicos, de serem alheios também às regras do direito e de serem, no sentido estrito, grotescos.

Michel Foucault. Os anormais. São Paulo: Martins Fontes, 2002, p. 14-15.

Figs and the wasps that pollinate them present one of biologists’ favorite examples of a beneficial relationship between two different species. In exchange for the pollination service provided by the wasp, the fig fruit provides room and board for the wasp’s developing young. However, wasps do not always pollinate the fig. Fig trees “punish” these “cheaters” by dropping unpollinated fruit, killing the wasp’s offspring inside, report researchers working at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute.

Their results, published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, show that sanctions against cheaters may be critical to maintain the relationship.

“Relationships require give and take. We want to know what forces maintain this 80-million-year-old arrangement between figs and their wasp pollinators.” said lead author, Charlotte Jandér, who conducted the study as a Smithsonian pre-doctoral fellow. “What prevents the wasps from reaping the benefits of the relationship without paying the costs?”

Some wasp species passively carry pollen that sticks to their bodies. Others actively collect pollen in special pouches. Jandér evaluated the ability of six different fig tree-fig wasp species pairs to regulate cheating. She introduced either a single pollen-free wasp, or a wasp carrying pollen, into a mesh bag containing an unpollinated fig. The wasps entered the figs to lay their eggs. Jandér found that trees often dropped unpollinated figs before young wasps could mature.

“This is really about the all-too-human theme of crime and punishment. We found that in actively pollinated fig species — when wasps expend time and energy to collect and deposit pollen — wasps that did not provide the basic service of pollination were sanctioned. However, in passively pollinated species — when the wasps do not need to make an effort to pollinate — sanctions were absent,” said Allen Herre, Smithonian Tropical Research Institute staff scientist. “Although we still need to clearly understand the costs associated with applying sanctions, it seems like they were only present where needed.”

“Sanctions seem to be a necessary force in keeping this, and other, mutually-beneficial relationships, on track,” said Jandér. “In our study, we saw less cheating when sanctions were stronger. Similar results have been found among human societies and in social insects. It is very appealing to think that the same general principles could help maintain cooperation both within and between species.”

Internet: <www.sciencedaily.com> (adapted).

La FIFA et le Fair-Play

Le fair-play constitue de manière générale un aspect important du football. Ce concept reflète les valeurs d’un comportement conforme aux Lois du Jeu sur le terrain, du bon sens et du respect envers ses co-équipiers, les arbitres, les adversaires et les supporters. La campagne de promotion du fair-play est née indirectement de la Coupe du Monde de la FIFA, Mexique 1986 et de la réaction admirable de l’entraîneur anglais, Sir Bobby Robson, lorsque Diego Maradona marqua son mémorable but de la main. Depuis, cette campagne a bénéficié du soutien inconditionnel de João Havelange, ancien Président de la FIFA, et de son actuel successeur, Joseph S. Blatter.

Afin que le message du fair-play soit davantage diffusé, la FIFA a mis au point un programme qui a transformé cette notion générale en un concept simple et facile à appréhender au travers d’un code de conduite qui peut être reconnu et respecté aussi bien par les joueurs que par les supporters.

Le fair-play joue un rôle essentiel dans le sport et son application est essentielle, en particulier dans les activités impliquant les plus jeunes. Les enfants ont besoin de valeurs fortes et le football, sport d’équipe par excellence, leur enseigne l’importance de la discipline, du respect, de la camaraderie et du fair-play, sur le terrain et en dehors.

Les dix règles d’or du code du fair-play sont les suivantes : 1) Joue fair-play. 2) Joue pour gagner mais accepte la défaite avec dignité. 3) Respecte les Lois du Jeu. 4) Respecte les adversaires, équipiers, arbitres, officiels et spectateurs. 5) Défends les intérêts du football. 6) Honore ceux qui défendent la bonne réputation du football. 7) Rejette la corruption, le dopage, le racisme, la violence, les paris et tout autre danger qui menace le football. 8) Aide les autres à résister aux tentatives de corruption. 9) Dénonce ceux qui tentent de discréditer notre sport. 10) Améliore le monde grâce au football.

Internet: <fr.fifa.com>.

Crimen y castigo en la naturaleza

Los higos y las avispas que los polinizan presentan uno de los ejemplos favoritos de los biólogos sobre una relación beneficiosa entre dos especies diferentes. A cambio del servicio de la polinización que ofrece la avispa, la fruta del higuerón suministra hospedaje y alimentación a las crías en desarrollo de la avispa. Sin embargo, éstas no siempre polinizan al higo. Los higuerones entonces castigan a las tramposas dejando caer las frutas que no han sido polinizadas, matando así a las crías de las avispas que están dentro de la fruta, informan científicos de Instituto Smithsonian de Investigaciones Tropicales (STRI, en inglés).

Sus resultados, publicados en Proceedings of the Royal Society, muestran que las sanciones contra tramposos pueden ser críticas para mantener la relación. “Las relaciones necesitan reciprocidad. Queremos saber qué fuerzas mantienen este arreglo de 80 millones de años entre los higuerones y sus avispas polinizadoras” comentó Charlotte Jandér, la autora principal del artículo, quien llevó a cabo el estudio como becaria pre doctoral en STRI.

“¿Qué hace que las avispas renuncien a obtener los beneficios de la relación al no pagar los costos?” Algunas especies de avispas portan polen pasivamente, el cual se les pega al cuerpo. Otras colectan el polen activamente en bolsas especiales. Jandér evalúa la habilidad de seis diferentes pares de especies de higuerón y avispa de higuerón para regular las trampas. Charlotte introduce, ya sea una sola avispa sin polen o una avispa que porta polen, dentro de una bolsa de redecilla que contiene un higo sin polinizar. Las avispas entran en los higos y dejan sus huevos. Jandér encontró que los árboles con frecuencia dejan caer los higos no polinizados antes de que las jóvenes avispas puedan madurar.

“Esto se trata realmente sobre un tema muy humano de crimen y castigo. Encontramos que en las especies que son polinizadas activamente — cuando se gasta tiempo y energía para colectar y depositar el polen — aquéllas avispas que no proporcionaron el servicio básico de la polinización fueron sancionadas. Sin embargo, en las especies que son polinizadas de forma pasiva — cuando las avispas no tienen la necesidad de esforzarse para polinizar — no hubo penalidades” aseguró Allen Herre, científico del cuerpo de investigadores de STRI. “Aunque aún debemos entender claramente los costos asociados con la aplicación de las sanciones, pareciera que las mismas están presentes solo cuando se necesitan.”

“Las sanciones parecen ser una fuerza necesaria para mantener en regla esta, y otras relaciones de mutuo beneficio. En nuestro estudio, vimos menos trampas cuando las sanciones eran más fuertes”, agrega Jandér. Los mismos resultados se han encontrado tanto para las asociaciones entre los seres humanos que entre los insectos sociales. Es muy atractivo el pensar que los mismos principios generales pueden ayudar a mantener la cooperación tanto dentro como entre especies.

Internet: <www.dicyt.com> (con adaptaciones).

Figs and the wasps that pollinate them present one of biologists’ favorite examples of a beneficial relationship between two different species. In exchange for the pollination service provided by the wasp, the fig fruit provides room and board for the wasp’s developing young. However, wasps do not always pollinate the fig. Fig trees “punish” these “cheaters” by dropping unpollinated fruit, killing the wasp’s offspring inside, report researchers working at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute.

Their results, published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, show that sanctions against cheaters may be critical to maintain the relationship.

“Relationships require give and take. We want to know what forces maintain this 80-million-year-old arrangement between figs and their wasp pollinators.” said lead author, Charlotte Jandér, who conducted the study as a Smithsonian pre-doctoral fellow. “What prevents the wasps from reaping the benefits of the relationship without paying the costs?”

Some wasp species passively carry pollen that sticks to their bodies. Others actively collect pollen in special pouches. Jandér evaluated the ability of six different fig tree-fig wasp species pairs to regulate cheating. She introduced either a single pollen-free wasp, or a wasp carrying pollen, into a mesh bag containing an unpollinated fig. The wasps entered the figs to lay their eggs. Jandér found that trees often dropped unpollinated figs before young wasps could mature.

“This is really about the all-too-human theme of crime and punishment. We found that in actively pollinated fig species — when wasps expend time and energy to collect and deposit pollen — wasps that did not provide the basic service of pollination were sanctioned. However, in passively pollinated species — when the wasps do not need to make an effort to pollinate — sanctions were absent,” said Allen Herre, Smithonian Tropical Research Institute staff scientist. “Although we still need to clearly understand the costs associated with applying sanctions, it seems like they were only present where needed.”

“Sanctions seem to be a necessary force in keeping this, and other, mutually-beneficial relationships, on track,” said Jandér. “In our study, we saw less cheating when sanctions were stronger. Similar results have been found among human societies and in social insects. It is very appealing to think that the same general principles could help maintain cooperation both within and between species.”

Internet: <www.sciencedaily.com> (adapted).

La FIFA et le Fair-Play

Le fair-play constitue de manière générale un aspect important du football. Ce concept reflète les valeurs d’un comportement conforme aux Lois du Jeu sur le terrain, du bon sens et du respect envers ses co-équipiers, les arbitres, les adversaires et les supporters. La campagne de promotion du fair-play est née indirectement de la Coupe du Monde de la FIFA, Mexique 1986 et de la réaction admirable de l’entraîneur anglais, Sir Bobby Robson, lorsque Diego Maradona marqua son mémorable but de la main. Depuis, cette campagne a bénéficié du soutien inconditionnel de João Havelange, ancien Président de la FIFA, et de son actuel successeur, Joseph S. Blatter.

Afin que le message du fair-play soit davantage diffusé, la FIFA a mis au point un programme qui a transformé cette notion générale en un concept simple et facile à appréhender au travers d’un code de conduite qui peut être reconnu et respecté aussi bien par les joueurs que par les supporters.

Le fair-play joue un rôle essentiel dans le sport et son application est essentielle, en particulier dans les activités impliquant les plus jeunes. Les enfants ont besoin de valeurs fortes et le football, sport d’équipe par excellence, leur enseigne l’importance de la discipline, du respect, de la camaraderie et du fair-play, sur le terrain et en dehors.

Les dix règles d’or du code du fair-play sont les suivantes : 1) Joue fair-play. 2) Joue pour gagner mais accepte la défaite avec dignité. 3) Respecte les Lois du Jeu. 4) Respecte les adversaires, équipiers, arbitres, officiels et spectateurs. 5) Défends les intérêts du football. 6) Honore ceux qui défendent la bonne réputation du football. 7) Rejette la corruption, le dopage, le racisme, la violence, les paris et tout autre danger qui menace le football. 8) Aide les autres à résister aux tentatives de corruption. 9) Dénonce ceux qui tentent de discréditer notre sport. 10) Améliore le monde grâce au football.

Internet: <fr.fifa.com>.