Classifique, como V ou F, a afirmativa abaixo:

Item 0: O custo de oportunidade de se reter moeda é dado pela diferença entre a taxa de juros nominal e a expectativa dos agentes com relação à taxa de inflação.

Classifique como V ou F, a afirmativa abaixo:

Item 2: Um superávit no Balanço Comercial implica uma acumulação de reservas internacionais pelo Banco Central.

ECONOMIC GROWTH

As long as the fruits of economic growth are taken in the form of higher income, economic growth will be accompanied by increases in the mean of the income distribution. However, poverty will not necessarily decrease if growth is accompanied by a sufficiently large, offsetting increase in inequality. Unfortunately the impact of growth on inequality is not nearly as clear, either theoretically or empirically, as its impact on the mean of the distribution.

Growth and the distribution of income are the joint results of a complicated set of underlying economic processes, reflected in changes in supplies of and demands for factors of production. Arguments that inequality is necessary for growth or that growth necessarily reduces inequality ignore the process generating growth and inequality simultaneously. Any correlation between these two variables is likely to be spurious - it is not growth per se, but how that growth is achieved, which determines inequality.

Technological change and increases in the supply of labor or capital offer two routes to economic growth. They are, however, not on equal footing. Since the amount of labor or capital cannot be increased indefinitely, only technological change can offer a permanent increase in the rate of growth of output. The two also differ in the ways in which they affect the distribution of income.

Technological change may increase or decrease inequality. The initial impact of technological change is to alter the demands for labor and capital. This in turn changes prices, which may call forth a supply response as workers flow to those jobs for which demand and, hence, wages are greater.

While technological change may increase the demand for all skill classes, this is by no means necessary. The result may be an increase in both economic growth and poverty. For example, a labor-saving technological change may lower the demand for low-skilled workers. The resulting decrease in wages of those at the bottom of the distribution will have two effects - some workers will drop out of the labor force, while others will be induced to gain skills in response to the drop in the relative wages of unskilled workers. Whether or not poverty increases depends on the relative magnitude of these two changes.

DANZIGER, Sheldon, GOTTSCHALK, Peter. Increasing inequality in the United States: what we know and what we don’t. Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, New York, 11(2): 181-182, 1988-89.

As still found in the fifth paragraph:

Item 3: “low-skilled workers” mean “trabalhadores de baixa qualificação”.

Considere uma economia na qual a demanda e a oferta agregadas são dadas pelas seguintes equações:

!$ Y^d = { \large MV \over P} !$ (demanda)

!$ Y^s = { \large P \over W} !$ (oferta)

onde M é o estoque nominal de moeda, V e velocidade de circulação da moeda, P o nível de preços e W o salário nominal. Para simplificar vamos supor que a velocidade de circulação da moeda seja unitária, ou seja V = 1. Note que em equilíbrio Y^d = Y^s.

Item 2: Nesta economia, a flexibilidade de preços e salários não impede que a mesma apresente uma equivalência aquém ou além do pleno emprego.

Considere uma economia na qual a demanda e a oferta agregadas são dadas pelas seguintes equações:

!$ Y^d = { \large MV \over P} !$ (demanda)

!$ Y^s = { \large P \over W} !$ (oferta)

onde M é o estoque nominal de moeda, V e velocidade de circulação da moeda, P o nível de preços e W o salário nominal. Para simplificar vamos supor que a velocidade de circulação da moeda seja unitária, ou seja V = 1. Note que em equilíbrio Y^d = Y^s.

Item 0: Supondo-se que um mecanismo instantâneo de indexação salarial mantenha o salário real sempre constantes e igual a unidade e que o estoque de moeda seja igual a 10 (M = 10), o produto em equilíbrio será também igual a 10. ou seja, Y^d = Y^s = Y = 10.

Numa economia tem-se, em percentagens do produto interno líquido:

• Poupança do setor privado: 18%
• Carga tributária bruta: 25%
• Outras receitas correntes do Governo: 1%
• Consumo do Governo: 10%
• Transferências: 10%
• Subsídios: 4%
• Superávit do balanço de pagamentos em transações correntes: 1%
• Depreciação do capital fixo: 6%
• Relação incremental capital/produto (líquida): 3

Isto posto:

Item 1: A Formação Bruta de Capital Fixo é 21% do Produto Interno Líquido.

Tendo em vista um modelo de concorrência monopolística, onde existe forte interdependência nas atitudes da empresa e alta elasticidade de substituição entre os bens produzidos, pode-se afirmar que:

Item 2: Não é possível determinar as curvas de demanda e oferta da indústria, nem há um preço único de equilíbrio.

A respeito da concorrência perfeita.

Item 1: O lucro é sempre zero.

ECONOMIC GROWTH

As long as the fruits of economic growth are taken in the form of higher income, economic growth will be accompanied by increases in the mean of the income distribution. However, poverty will not necessarily decrease if growth is accompanied by a sufficiently large, offsetting increase in inequality. Unfortunately the impact of growth on inequality is not nearly as clear, either theoretically or empirically, as its impact on the mean of the distribution.

Growth and the distribution of income are the joint results of a complicated set of underlying economic processes, reflected in changes in supplies of and demands for factors of production. Arguments that inequality is necessary for growth or that growth necessarily reduces inequality ignore the process generating growth and inequality simultaneously. Any correlation between these two variables is likely to be spurious - it is not growth per se, but how that growth is achieved, which determines inequality.

Technological change and increases in the supply of labor or capital offer two routes to economic growth. They are, however, not on equal footing. Since the amount of labor or capital cannot be increased indefinitely, only technological change can offer a permanent increase in the rate of growth of output. The two also differ in the ways in which they affect the distribution of income.

Technological change may increase or decrease inequality. The initial impact of technological change is to alter the demands for labor and capital. This in turn changes prices, which may call forth a supply response as workers flow to those jobs for which demand and, hence, wages are greater.

While technological change may increase the demand for all skill classes, this is by no means necessary. The result may be an increase in both economic growth and poverty. For example, a labor-saving technological change may lower the demand for low-skilled workers. The resulting decrease in wages of those at the bottom of the distribution will have two effects - some workers will drop out of the labor force, while others will be induced to gain skills in response to the drop in the relative wages of unskilled workers. Whether or not poverty increases depends on the relative magnitude of these two changes.

DANZIGER, Sheldon, GOTTSCHALK, Peter. Increasing inequality in the United States: what we know and what we don’t. Journal of Post Keynesian Economics, New York, 11(2): 181-182, 1988-89.

As can be understood in the third paragraph:

Item 2: Technological advance is only reached through an increase in the supply of labor and capital.

Uma economia oligopolizada se comporta nos termos do modelo de Kalecki. Especificamente, o produto real Y se divide entre a parcela !$ { \large 1 \over 1 + m} Y !$ pertence aos trabalhadores e a parcela !$ { \large m \over 1 + m} Y !$ pertencente aos capitalistas. No caso, m é a margem de lucro, determinada pelo grau de oligopólio na economia. Os trabalhadores consomem toda sua renda. A despesa dos capitalistas, que inclui consumo mais investimento é dada por:

!$ c { \large m \over 1 + m} y + A !$

onde A é uma constante positiva, e 0 < c < 1, o que significa que a propensão marginal a consumir dos capitalistas é menor do que 1. Admita que o limite de capacidade de produção da economia seja !$ \overline{Y} !$, e que o governo, através de um órgão tipo CIP, resolva controlar m. Nesse caso:

Item 3: Se a economia estiver operando abaixo de seu limite de capacidade, uma redução de m levará ao desabastecimento.